Built in 970 AD during the Fatimid Caliphate, the Al-Azhar Mosque and its accompanying university in Cairo form one of the world's oldest and most influential centers of Islamic learning. While it began as a political instrument for the Ismaili Shia dynasty, subsequent rulers transformed it into the foremost bastion of Sunni orthodoxy. Today, Al-Azhar operates as a vast educational complex that shapes theological thought, legal rulings, and cultural identity across the global Muslim community.
Understanding Al-Azhar requires looking beyond its stunning stone courtyards and historic minarets. The institution bridges medieval Islamic scholarship with modern state bureaucracy, managing millions of students while issuing authoritative fatwas that influence religious practice from North Africa to Southeast Asia.
The Foundation and Medieval Evolution
The Fatimid conquerors of Egypt established Cairo as their new capital and commissioned Al-Azhar as the primary congregational mosque for the city. Caliph Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah oversaw its construction, naming it after Fatimah al-Zahra, the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. Initially, the mosque served as a venue for teaching Ismaili jurisprudence.
When Salah ad-Din (Saladin) overthrew the Fatimid dynasty in 1171, he systematically dismantled its Shia administrative structures to restore Sunni dominance in Egypt. Saladin closed Al-Azhar to Friday prayers and replaced its theological leaning with Shafi'i and Maliki Sunni jurisprudence.
During the Mamluk sultanate, the complex experienced its golden architectural and academic age. Wealthy patrons endowed the mosque with waqfs (charitable trusts), funding residential quarters for impoverished students from around the world, libraries filled with rare manuscripts, and stipends for prominent scholars. These endowments allowed Al-Azhar to function independently of shifting political regimes, cementing its status as an autonomous seat of learning.
The 1961 Reform and Modern Curricular Shift
For centuries, instruction at Al-Azhar centered strictly on traditional Islamic sciences: Qur'anic exegesis (tafsir), prophetic traditions (hadith), Arabic grammar, and jurisprudence (fiqh). Students sat in circles (halqa) on the mosque floor, listening to senior scholars lecture from memory or classical texts.
In 1961, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser introduced a sweeping modernization law that fundamentally altered the institution. This reform nationalized Al-Azhar, placing its administration under state oversight and integrating secular faculties—such as medicine, engineering, agriculture, and commerce—alongside traditional religious departments.
This structural change created a dual-track educational model. Graduates could now earn professional degrees in technical fields while maintaining a rigorous grounding in Islamic theology. However, this state integration also introduced political tensions, as government officials gained leverage over official religious appointments and institutional policies.
Authority, Fatwas, and Global Influence
Al-Azhar remains the preeminent authority in Sunni Islam, largely due to the global reach of its scholarly council and the office of the Grand Imam (Sheikh al-Azhar). The institution issues thousands of binding and advisory fatwas annually, addressing complex questions ranging from modern bioethics to financial transactions and geopolitical conflicts.
Muslim communities across Indonesia, Malaysia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Europe frequently look to Al-Azhar's rulings for religious validation. To facilitate this global connection, the university hosts tens of thousands of international students on its Cairo campus every year, offering scholarships and specialized Arabic-language training programs.
Despite its prestige, the institution faces ongoing scrutiny regarding its theological posture. Critics argue that its administrative bureaucracy moves too slowly on social reforms, while others claim state oversight muzzles independent intellectual dissent among its faculty.
Frequently Asked Questions
Is Al-Azhar the oldest university in the world?
Al-Azhar is widely recognized as one of the world's oldest continuously operating degree-granting universities. While higher education institutions like the University of Al-Qarawiyyin in Morocco predate it, Al-Azhar's continuous integration of formal campus structures, residential facilities, and diverse faculties sets it apart in educational history.
Who leads the Al-Azhar institution?
The head of the institution is the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar. This position carries immense spiritual authority across the Sunni Muslim world and is currently held by Sheikh Ahmed el-Tayeb, who advocates for moderate theological dialogue and interfaith outreach.
Can non-Muslims study at Al-Azhar?
The faculties dedicated to Islamic theology and jurisprudence are restricted to Muslim students. However, international and non-Muslim students can enroll in specific secular academic programs or language institutes affiliated with the broader Al-Azhar university network, though Arabic proficiency is mandatory for most undergraduate courses.
How are Al-Azhar's operations funded?
While historically reliant on private endowments (waqfs), Al-Azhar is currently a state-supported institution funded primarily through the Egyptian government budget, supplemented by international educational grants and charitable donations.
